In response to the effects of globalization, to keep ahead of the competition countries worldwide strive to cultivate more talented people through higher education systems as well as by recruiting talent from other countries, particularly Ph.D. holders. The Taiwan government, which is no exception in this fight for talent, faces the challenge of “brain drain.” This study, rooted in “Push-Pull Theory,” first examined the possible “push,” “pull,” and personal factors that exacerbate the brain drain phenomenon in Taiwan (i.e., emigration of Ph.D. holders from Taiwan to other countries) and then provided some possible solutions. To this end, the study interviewed 14 Ph.D. holders who chose to stay in the United States after graduating. According to the current results, the “push” is related to the weakness of Taiwanese higher education (i.e., red tape during the recruitment process, the prevalence of nepotism, and the unclear roles of professors). By contrast, the “pull” of the United States are related to the strength of its higher education (i.e., the simplicity of the recruit mentprocess, the lack of nepotism, and the roles of professors being clearly defined). Furthermore, personal factors, particularly those involving policies that draw talented people overseas, include instability and lack of long-term plans. Based on the results, the end of the study offers some policy suggestions, including creating an “In-and-Out System,” building a “Bonding System,” and simplifying the application process.

» More

1. 周祝瑛（2011）。台灣地區國際學生調查研究。世界教育信息（北京），289（24），41-47。 【Chou, C.-P. (2011). Survey study on international students in Taiwan. Journal of World Education (Beijing), 289(24), 41-47.】
2. 張芳全、余民寧（1999）。亞洲國家與美國間留學生互動因素之探索。教育與心理研究，22（2），213-250。 【Chang, F.-C., & Yu, M.-N. (1999). The factors of study abroad interactions between Asian overseas students and the United States. Journal of Education & Psychology, 22(2), 213-250.】
3. 張珍瑋、蔡明學（2015）。我國公費留學生人才追蹤研究（NAER-103-12-C-2-05-00-1-11）。國家教育研究院。 【Chang, C.-W., & Tsai, M.-S. (2015). The follow-up research on Taiwanese M.O.E. sponsored talented people (NAER-103-12-C-2-05-00-1-11). National Academy for Educational Research.】
4. 教育部國際及兩岸教育司（2019）。2008-2018各年度我國學生赴主要留學國家留學簽證人數統計表。https://depart.moe.edu.tw/ED2500/News_Content.aspx?n=2D25F01E87D6EE17&sms= 4061A6357922F45A&s=A6AD068477F61649 【Department of International and Cross-Strait Education, Ministry of Education. (2019). The numbers of student visa issued by main host countries in year 2008-2018. https://depart.moe.edu.tw/ED2500/News_Content.aspx? n=2D25F01E87D6EE17&sms=4061A6357922F45A&s=A6AD068477F61649】
5. 教育部統計處（2015）。我國博士生概況分析。http://stats.moe.gov.tw/files/brief/我國博士生概況分析.pdf 【Department of Statistics, Ministry of Education. (2015). The general analysis of PhD students in Taiwan. http://stats.moe.gov.tw/files/brief/我國博士生概況分析.pdf】
6. 童清峰（2016）。港媒：臺灣未來最大難題──失去的20年，僅剩下經濟惡化、民粹內耗、工資低落、人才流失。https://buzzorange.com/2016/01/11/the-biggest-problem-for-taiwan/ 【Tung, C.-F. (2016). Hong Kong media－The main difficulty for future Taiwan: The lost 20 years left economic deterioration, populism, low wage, brain drain behind. https://buzzorange.com/2016/01/11/the-biggest-problem-for-taiwan/】
7. 詹盛如（2017）。亞洲跨境學生流動：哪些品質重要呢？評鑑雙月刊，70，19-21。 【Chan, S.-J. (2017). Asian cross-border student mobility: What are important qualities? Evaluation Bimonthly, 70, 19-21.】
8. Agarwal, V. B., & Winkler, D. R. (1985). Foreign demand for United States higher education: A study of developing countries in the eastern hemisphere. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 33(3), 623-644. https://doi.org/10.1086/451482
9. Ahmad, S. Z., & Hussain, M. (2017). An investigation of the factors determining student destination choice for higher education in the United Arab Emirates. Studies in Higher Education, 42(7), 1324-1343. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1099622
10. Auriol, L. (2010). Careers of doctorate holders: Employment and mobility patterns (Working Paper No. 2010/04). OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/5kmh8phxvvf5-en
11. Bernard, A., Bell, M., & Charles-Edwards, E. (2014). Life-course transitions and the age profile of internal migration. Population and Development Review, 40(2), 213-239. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2014.00671.x
12. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241-258). Greenwood Press.
13. Bouwel, L. V., & Veugelers, R. (2014). Are foreign top PhD students more likely to stay in the United States? Some evidence from European economists. In M. Gerard & S. Uebelmesser (Eds.), The mobility of students and the highly skilled: Implications for education financing and economic policy (pp. 57-82). MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262028172.003.0003
14. Burris, V. (2004). The academic caste system: Prestige hierarchies in PhD exchange networks. American Sociological Review, 69(2), 239-264. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240406900205
15. Chang, C.-W., & Chan, S.-J. (2020). Transit point of global talent: Social/cultural dimensions of short-term student circulation. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 18(1), 30-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2019.1690731
16. Eder, J., Smith, W. W., & Pitts, R. E. (2010). Exploring factors influencing student study abroad destination choice. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 10(3), 232-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313220.2010.503534
17. Eurostat. (2017). Tertiary education statistics. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Tertiary_education_statistics#Participation_by_level
18. Hunter, R. S., Oswald, A. J., & Charlton, B. G. (2009). The elite brain drain. The Economic Journal, 119(538), F231-F251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02274.x
19. Lee, E. S. (1966). A theory of migration. Demography, 3(1), 47-57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2060063
20. Lee, K. H., & Tan, J. P. (1984). The international flow of third level lesser developed country students to developed countries: Determinants and implications. Higher Education, 13, 687-707. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00137020
21. Li, M., & Bray, M. (2007). Cross-border flows of students for higher education: Push-pull factors and motivations of mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong and Macau. Higher Education, 53, 791-818. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-005-5423-3
22. Mazzarol, T., & Soutar, G. N. (2002). “Push-pull” factors influencing international student destination choice. International Journal of Educational Management, 16(2), 82-90. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540210418403
23. McMahon, M. E. (1992). Higher education in a world market: An historical look at the global context of international study. Higher Education, 24, 465-482. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00137243
24. National Science Foundation. (2017a). 2015 Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities. https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2017/nsf17306/static/report/nsf17306.pdf
25. National Science Foundation. (2017b). Doctorates awarded for 10 largest countries of origin of temporary visa holders earning doctorates at U.S. colleges and universities, by country or economy of citizenship and field: 2005-15. https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2017/nsf17306/data/tab26.pdf
26. National Science Foundation. (2017c). Doctorate recipients, by broad field of study and citizenship status: Selected years, 1985-2015. https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2017/nsf17306/data/tab17.pdf
27. National Science Foundation. (2017d). Top 40 countries or economies of origin of temporary visa holders earning doctorates at U.S. colleges and universities, ranked by number of doctorate recipients: 2015. https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2017/nsf17306/data/tab25.pdf
28. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2007). Cross-border tertiary education: A way towards capacity development. OECD Publishing.
29. Oxford Economics. (2012). Global talent 2021: How the new geography of talent will transform human resource strategies. http://www.scm.oas.org/pdfs/2013/CIDI03946E.pdf
30. Ravenstein, E. G. (1889). The laws of migration. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 52(2), 241-305. https://doi.org/10.2307/2979333

APA Format	Jheng, Y.-J., & Chang, C.-W. (2021). Between “push” and “pull”?─An analysis of Taiwan’s “brain drain” and possible solutions from the perspective of Push-Pull Theory: The examples of Ph.D. holders in the U.S.. Journal of Research in Education Sciences, 66(2), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.6209/JORIES.202106_66(2).0001